Immersion in Indigo

What is Indigo?

Indigo was supplied to Europe via the Great Silk Road and by sea. In Europe, its main competitor was the local woad, which produced a paler and less durable colour but was readily available.

It was also used by various civilisations for painting frescoes, ceramics, statues, and masks. The name speaks for itself — the word "indigo" comes from the Greek indikón ("Indian").

The primary fabrics for indigo-dyed clothing are cotton, linen, silk, and wool.

The Indigofera Plant

To create dye from natural indigo, the indigofera plant is used as raw material. Indigofera is a shrub that grows up to 2 metres tall, with elongated leaves and very beautiful flowers. Sometimes indigofera is cultivated simply as an ornamental plant.

Indican is the precursor to indigo and can be found in certain plants of the indigofera family. With nearly 800 species, it is the third largest genus in the legume family, growing on continents from Asia to the Americas (more than 600 species are found in Africa).

In West Africa, there is also a second source of indigo — Lonchocarpus cyanescens, also known as "Yoruba indigo" (elu).

The Dye-Making Process

The dye itself is obtained from dried indigofera leaves through a lengthy process.

First, the leaves are thoroughly crushed and dried, then an extract is prepared and left to settle in special vessels. This is followed by a process of infusion and maturation. It requires careful attention from workers and periodic stirring.

Once the extract has fully matured, the water is drained and the extract is dried until it turns into a powder of its characteristic colour.

Vat Dye

Indigo is known as a vat dye, and its chemical composition is quite fascinating. The only other natural vat dye is the purple dye extracted from molluscs.

Just a few centuries ago, this mysterious dye was so exclusive that only royalty and aristocracy could afford it. It was imported with great difficulty from distant colonies, giving indigo a status comparable to tea, coffee, silk, or even gold.

The process of dyeing with indigo was complex and mystical. The fabric was immersed in a vat of fermenting solution, and upon contact with air it turned the famous blue colour. Due to the difficulty of extraction and the intensity of colour, indigo was long considered a "royal" and expensive dye.

Indigo in Ancient Peru (Huaca Prieta)

For ancient civilisations such as the Nazca, Mochica, and later the Inca, the blue colour obtained from tara was sacred. It was associated with water, sky, and the divine. It was used to dye ritual fabrics, burial shrouds, and the garments of nobility and priests.

The discovery in Peru of 6,000-year-old indigo-dyed textiles proves that Andean cultures were far ahead of their time in textile production. From Huaca Prieta to the Inca Empire, Peruvian civilisations mastered the art of dyeing, weaving, and eco-friendly fabric production long before the Industrial Revolution.

With the arrival of the Spanish, indigo became one of the most important export commodities alongside silver. It was called "el oro azul" (blue gold). Tara plantations and the production of dye bricks generated enormous revenues but also led to the exploitation of the local population.

This discovery demonstrates the high level of technological knowledge of ancient Peruvians in textile processing, long before the emergence of ceramics.

Indigo in Ancient Egypt

Indigo has been used in African textiles for centuries. In the Fifth Dynasty (c. 2400 BCE), the ancient Egyptians wove indigo stripes into plain linen fabric for mummies, and Tutankhamun's tomb was filled with numerous garments containing indigo, including the highly revered state mantle.

A headscarf was found among Tutankhamun's embalming cache. It is believed that the scarves were part of the remaining embalming linen. This scarf received its blue colour from indigo.

The earliest material evidence of indigo dye use are traces found in textiles preserved in Egyptian tombs of the Late Bronze Age.

For the Egyptians, it was a symbol of divinity and immortality, and it was used to dye the bandages of mummies.

Indigo in West Africa — Traditions

Many West African cultures have traditions of indigo dyeing and textile production: the Yoruba in Nigeria (Yorubaland), the Hausa in Nigeria (Kano), the Dogon in Mali, the Baule in Ivory Coast, and the Soninke in Senegal.

With the exception of the Hausa people, dyeing fabric in West Africa was traditionally considered a women's craft, while weaving was a men's craft.

Indigo dyeing in Nigeria is a special craft of the Yoruba people. In Yorubaland, the three largest cities are Ibadan, Oshogbo, and Abeokuta. Ibadan was celebrated as "Ibadan Ilu Aro", meaning Ibadan — the land of indigo dyeing, and street/district names were linked to this craft, such as Idi-aro, Igosun, Ebu-ose, and Ebu-aro.

One of the obvious differences between north and south (apart from gender roles) is that the Hausa dye fabrics in pits in the ground, while the Yoruba use clay pots placed above ground.

Yoruba culture is deeply spiritual, worshipping many deities. It is therefore not uncommon to encounter a shrine to Iya Mapo, the goddess of dyeing, pottery, and other traditionally female crafts and trades.

The Adire Technique

Adire — a local name derived from two Yoruba words: "adi" meaning "to tie" and "re" meaning "to dye" — is the general name for a range of resist-dyeing techniques used by the Yoruba people in southwestern Nigeria.

The adire oniko technique is the oldest of the adire techniques, which involves tying raffia (or thread) to create a resist before dyeing.

This same resist-dyeing method has a long history and is practised in many cultures, each with its own name: in Japan it is known as shibori; in Indonesia as plangi/pelangi; and in India as bandhani and chundri.

The Current State in Africa

In 2025, West African indigo dyeing remains alive but under serious threat. The situation is aggravated by the Nigerian government's preference for cheap textile imports from Asia, available in every conceivable form and colour, making it difficult for local indigo dyers to compete. As a result, the Kofar Mata dye pits have become a relic of ancient African traditions.

Unfortunately, since the introduction of synthetic dye in Nigeria in the 1960s, it has been one of the factors contributing to the gradual disappearance of this craft (alongside cheap textile imports).

In recent years, there has been something of a revival, driven by the steadily growing demand for "slow" fashion and NGO programmes that train young dyers and promote sustainable natural indigo dyeing processes.

Aboubakar Fofana is an artist and designer known for his work in reviving and reimagining West African indigo dyeing techniques. A significant part of his activity is devoted to preserving and reinterpreting traditional West African textiles and natural dyes, as well as the materials used.

Indigo in Japan — Spirituality

The approaches to natural indigo dyeing in Japan and West Africa are strikingly similar, considering the physical distance separating these cultures.

"In Japanese culture there is Shinto, and in West African culture there is animism; they are absolutely the same... In West Africa you pray to the indigo gods to bless a new vat of indigo, in Japan you offer the indigo god sake to bless a new vat," he explains the rituals underlying this process.

Aizome and the Samurai

Looking at old paintings and woodblock prints depicting samurai, one can discover a somewhat unexpected common element alongside swords, helmets, and distinctive armour — aizome, or indigo-dyed clothing.

These garments were worn under armour as early as the 12th century and served several purposes. They were not only very pleasant to the skin and served as an ideal buffer against the heat and discomfort of armour, but could also play a role if a samurai was struck by enemy swords.

According to Osamu Nii, a sixth-generation indigo farmer: "Indigo-dyed fabric was useful for treating wounds because it protected them and prevented bacterial growth."

The Sukumo Process (Tokushima)

The epicentre of indigo production in Japan was the city of Tokushima.

Sukumo is made by piling dried ai leaves in a large room, covering them with straw mats, and sprinkling them with water. Then, roughly every 7–10 days, the mats are removed and everything is mixed... this process continues for about 100 days. Essentially, the leaves decompose into a compost-like material.

You can dye things using just the leaves, but the colour won't be as saturated. Sukumo, however, can be stored for years and produces very vibrant results.

After harvesting, the leaves are dried and fermented in a temperature-controlled room over several months. This process is carried out using only water and natural yeasts. This is how the leaves change colour from green to blue. The quality of colour strongly depends on the fermentation process, and even a slight change will affect the final quality of the dye.

Philosophy of the Process

Once the dye base is ready, it is mixed with water and kept viable through microorganisms that develop during fermentation. Like all living things, they need nourishment and protection to survive, and Mr Yuasa explained that only constant care allows aizome to remain alive and create the beautiful, lasting Japanese blue colour.

The process takes from a week to a month and cannot be accelerated without loss of quality. This teaches patience and humility. The master does not command the process but is rather its attentive servant and guide. There is a deep resonance here with Japanese aesthetic principles — valuing the natural flow of time and change.

Indigo dyeing, known in Japan as "aizome", is also naturally derived from Japanese indigo (Persicaria tinctoria). The Japanese name for indigo is kachi — the same word used to mean "victory".

Indigo in India — Trade

The first literary mention appears in the Atharvaveda at the beginning of the first millennium BCE. Later it appears in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a navigational text from the 1st century CE. A detailed description of the dye-making process was recorded around the same time by the Roman writer Pliny the Elder, suggesting that indigo-dyed textiles were traded throughout the Indian subcontinent, Western Asia, and the Mediterranean.

The Sanskrit word "nili", meaning indigo, was used as a suffix in the names of some Arab merchants who traded in this dye.

French and British involvement in the trade took place in the Levant, where prices for indigo were set for Mediterranean markets and, consequently, for the rest of Europe.

Despite its high cost, indigo often surpassed local European dyes such as woad due to its high concentration and durability, which led to its ban at various times between the 16th and 18th centuries in France, Norway, and Britain.

Ayurveda and traditional Asian medicine used indigo for treating skin diseases (eczema, psoriasis, ulcers), inflammation, liver disease, fever, epilepsy, asthma, and insect and snake bites.

Colonial Exploitation

British policy in Bengal, for example the Tinkathia system, obliged landowners to grow indigo on at least three kathas (a unit of land measurement) of every bigha (1 bigha = 20 kathas) of their land.

These landowners (or indigo planters, as they were then known) employed agricultural labourers who were often forced to grow indigofera instead of food crops. While indigo planters and British merchants made significant profits exporting indigo to Europe and Britain, the workers received low wages and were forced into debt, sometimes even starvation.

Indigo plantations were also established in other colonies using similar policies, particularly in the West Indies.

During the Indigo Revolt of 1859, farmers from Chaugachi and other parts of Bengal staged a fierce uprising against the planters and zamindars. The human cost of indigo cultivation, particularly in Bengal, has since been remembered as a symbol of colonial exploitation.

The Synthetic Breakthrough

In 1883, the German chemist Adolf von Baeyer first synthesised indigo in a laboratory, for which he later received the Nobel Prize (1905).

Working with the German company Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik (BASF), he spent three decades and more money than the entire capital value of the company perfecting synthetic indigo.

The result, presented as "Indigo Pure" in 1897, was a phenomenal success despite initial scepticism. By 1914, 95% of all natural indigo production had disappeared.

By the end of the 19th century, BASF had established industrial production of synthetic indigo. It was cheaper, purer, more consistent in quality, and independent of harvests. This led to a catastrophic collapse of the global natural indigo market within just 10–15 years. Thousands of plantations, especially in India, went bankrupt, becoming one of the causes of economic upheaval.

The Denim Revolution

In 1853, a 24-year-old Bavarian immigrant named Loeb Strauss (later Levi Strauss) arrived in San Francisco during the Gold Rush. He sold dry goods, including sturdy canvas for tents and wagons.

A tailor named Jacob Davis, who had followed the gold boom east to Nevada, ran a small but thriving workshop serving local miners who wore through trousers at an incredible rate.

Nevada tailor Jacob Davis came up with the idea of reinforcing the pockets of work trousers with copper rivets to prevent them from tearing under the weight of tools. He couldn't afford a patent and proposed a partnership to Levi Strauss.

On 20 May 1873, they received patent No. 139121 for "the process of riveting pockets". This date is considered the birthday of blue jeans.

For a long time, Levi's jeans were the uniform of cowboys, miners, and farmers. After World War II, they were adopted by teenagers and movie stars (like James Dean in Rebel Without a Cause), transforming them into a symbol of youth and rebellion.

Why Indigo for Jeans?

How can you be a true denim lover and not be curious about how and with what your favourite pair was dyed?

Practicality: Indigo excellently hides dirt and stains, and when washed it gradually fades, creating a unique "fading" effect valued by enthusiasts.

Durability: Indigo-dyed denim was incredibly strong, making it ideal for workwear.

Aesthetics: The deep, rich blue colour was visually appealing and gained individual character over time.

The blue Levi's jeans that became the uniform of workers, cowboys, and then young people around the world are a product of synthetic indigo.

Natural Dyeing Today

The main feature of hand-dyeing with natural indigo (Awa Shoai) is a very stable and long-lasting colour. Through multiple cycles of dyeing, washing, and drying, the yarn is dyed almost all the way through. Gradually, the yarn changes colour from light green to a rich indigo hue.

Jeans dyed in this way develop only very slight fading at the creases. The original colour itself, with various shades of indigo along the entire length of the yarn, is a true work of art and is highly valued among connoisseurs of Japanese denim.

If you see the water turn a "wine" colour when soaking or washing your jeans, this is one sign that the jeans were dyed with natural indigo. They also have a characteristic pleasant smell.

You may now notice the label "NATURALLY INDIGO" or "NATURALLY DYED" on some jeans. For example, one of the most famous naturally dyed jeans is the Pure Blue Japan ai-001 Natural Shoai Dyed Regular Straight. Here, the most expensive and most labour-intensive hand-dyeing method, Awa Shoai, is used, with roots going back to the Edo period.

Making denim by any traditional method is a complex and labour-intensive process. It is precisely this attentive approach to production that makes Japanese jeans special.

Environmental Catastrophe

While natural indigo has been used for millennia, synthetic indigo, developed in the 19th century, has led to environmental problems. The fashion industry, especially fast fashion, relies heavily on synthetic dyes that release chemical pollutants into waterways and contain toxic heavy metals harmful to ecosystems.

Environmental catastrophe: factory effluent is the main polluter of rivers. The colour of rivers in "denim" regions of China, India, and Bangladesh has become a meme.

Rapid industrialisation has led to the use of a range of toxic chemicals causing serious environmental pollution. Tens of thousands of tonnes of manufactured dyes are expected to be used annually in the textile and garment industry.

Due to their non-biodegradability and carcinogenic nature, synthetic compounds used as dyes and auxiliary substances in the textile and garment industry are among the main polluters of water and the environment.

We are largely made of water — how important it is to care about water, about its purity. The entire dyeing industry currently causes the greatest damage precisely to water.

The Alchemy of Indigo

This is not simply dyeing fabric blue — it is a complex biochemical process. The dye (indigotin) in indigo plant leaves does not dissolve in water. For the fabric to absorb it, indigo must be reduced (oxygen removed) and converted into a soluble form — leuco-indigo. This task is performed by special bacteria in the fermenting vat.

Ancient masters discovered the secret of indigo through empirical methods: the pigment itself is insoluble in water. To dye fabric, it must be fermented in an alkaline solution (most often with urine or lime). In this "vat", indigo is reduced to a colourless form ("leuco-indigo") that penetrates the fibres. When pulled out into the air, the fabric oxidises and turns the famous unwashable blue colour. This process was akin to magic or alchemy.

To truly feel this, you can only do so in reality, by personally engaging with the process.

Healing Properties

Antimicrobial and antifungal activity: can inhibit the growth of certain bacteria (e.g. Staphylococcus aureus) and fungi.

Antiviral activity: the potential against herpes viruses and even HIV is being studied.

Anti-leukaemia activity: some compounds (e.g. indirubin) have shown the ability to slow cancer cell growth.

Indigo as a Living Being

A finished vat of indigo in this method is compared to a living being that needs care. It is even "fed" (by adding lye) and "put to sleep" (covered at night to retain warmth).

Fabric dyed with such indigo is not merely beautiful — it possesses a history, a soul, and carries the wisdom of a centuries-old tradition that masters carefully preserve despite the enormous labour involved in the process.

Revival of Sustainability

Demand for natural indigo has recently increased in many countries due to the consequences of pollution and health concerns, as well as a revival of interest in the connection between colour and culture. Indigo is still grown on a small scale and used as a supplementary crop for dyeing in India, as well as in various countries in Africa and Central America.

The fashion industry faces serious challenges in achieving more sustainable indigo dyeing. Modern techniques, including natural fermentation methods and environmentally friendly synthetic processes, seek to reduce the water and chemical footprint associated with traditional indigo production.

Indigo is valued not only for its aesthetic beauty but also as a field of research for developing increasingly sustainable dyeing methods, as well as industrial processes that increasingly minimise environmental impact by reducing water, energy, and chemical use.

Conscious Living

This is not merely a way of dyeing fabric — it is a practice that cultivates attentiveness, respect for material, and an understanding of the cyclical nature of nature. Indigo teaches us to live a more conscious life.

How to Become Part of the Movement

Beyond its use for dyeing textiles and clothing, indigo extract has numerous functional applications in finishing, such as antibacterial properties, antifeedant effects, UV protection, food and cosmetic colouring, cosmetic therapeutic additives, pH indicators, pharmaceutical sourcing, and much more.

Recycling old clothes, customising your own garments, supporting natural dyeing artisans, conscious consumption.